6
Privacy and Casinos:What They Know About You
Tyler Grady and Kory Felzien
Introduction
You and your friends go to Las Vegas for a night of gambling.
As soon as you set foot on the strip, you walk into a network of
thousands of cameras that watch your every move and keep it on
record. As the cocktail waitress fetches your gin and tonic and you place
your first bet, you wonder, what do these casinos really know about me
and how will they use the information they have? For many years
casinos have been using cameras to catch cheaters and monitor all
movement on the floor. The casinos say they are using these cameras to
watch for all fraudulent activities and to ensure the safety of the casino
patrons and employees. Whether it’s counting cards or claiming missed
payouts, there are many people trying to scam casinos. Las Vegas and
many other casino hot spots are taking preventative measures to
guarantee that these types of things do not happen.
But how far does this go? What technologies are casinos using
to combat unfairly advantaged players and assist in security measures?
What privacy issues arise with these new levels of security? What
programs are being adapted to ensure data security? What does the
public know about this? This chapter will answer these questions and
give insight into the secret world of casino surveillance technology.
History
Gambling was first legalized in Nevada in 1931. Since then,
gamblers of all types have been trying to find ways to beat the system.
In the early days of gambling, cheating techniques were simpler and
more obvious. Examples include simple tricks such as phony die to help
guarantee a certain number, diverting the attention of the casino
attendants to put down late bets, stealing chips or money, or the use of
unofficial coins in the machines. These days, cheaters have gone to new
lengths to outwit the house.
Casinos around the globe tell a number of unimaginable
stories about gamblers who have cleverly devised ways to cheat. One
story involves a South African gang who was able to win over $300,000
by cheating the system. This gang infiltrated the factory of a playing-
card manufacturer, who happened to be the card supplier of a local
casino. Because members of the gang worked at the factory, they were
able to insert a small defect into the cards to represent different suits
and high and low cards. By doing this, gang members playing at the
casino were able to identify what type of card was drawn and gain a
significant edge while playing.
Another case involved a young student from the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology who used a special jacket he
constructed during an assignment in school to win himself a great deal
of money. The jacket included a wearable blackjack card-counting
computer that took advantage of the fact that, in this particular game,
knowing the cards in play increases the gambler’s odds. Ultimately, the
device was recognized by casino surveillance because his device let off
flickers, which were picked up by infrared cameras (Casino
Surveillance).
The use of technology in surveillance systems is in no way new
to casinos, as casinos are always striving to protect and maximize their
gaming revenues. Large amounts of currency move throughout a
casino, which tempts players to find ways to cheat the system. Since the
beginning of the gaming industry, players have been finding ways to
increase their odds. Nowadays, of the 150 million people who visit US
casinos each year, there are only about 5,000 who pose a risk from a
security standpoint (Casino Surveillance). These people are the
professional cheats, the incredibly intelligent who are able to think of
new ways to attempt to outthink casino surveillance systems. The
billions of dollars that casinos spend on security are, of course, for these
select individuals.
New Technologies
A major reason that controversial surveillance technologies,
such as biometric face scanning and other database scanning programs,
are common in casinos is that casino patrons are accepting of heavy
security and do not find it overly intrusive. In this industry, operators
are free to develop programs to track all the behavior and money
throughout the entire complex of the casino. Additionally, when
professional cheaters began to take advantage of the out-dated casino
security systems, a game of cat and mouse began as casinos tried to catch and out-smart the swindlers. Because casinos have extremely high
spending power, they are able to stay on top of emerging technologies.
In fact, the surveillance technology used in the gaming industry is
among the most high-tech available in any form of business across the
globe.
Video Surveillance
Visual surveillance systems used in casinos have made giant
strides in the realm of productivity. Originally, visual surveillance
simply involved managers observing players from catwalks above the
gaming floor. Once closed-circuit television technology was developed,
surveillance became a way to detect wrongdoers and keep records of
the offenses. Closed-circuit television is the use of video cameras to
transmit a signal to a specific, limited set of monitors. What makes
closed-circuit television different from broadcast television is that the
signal is not openly transmitted, but it may be transmitted through
wireless points and links. The Mirage, which at the time was the most
expensive hotel/casino in history, was the first casino to use this
technology. The problem originally brought up regarding breaches in
privacy with closed-circuit television was the idea that the monitors
were used as a social control measure instead of a deterrent to crime. In
the United States, however, there are no data protection laws or systems
in place to inhibit the use of this technology. In some cases, the Fourth
Amendment, which prohibits “unreasonable searches and seizures,”
has been brought into play, but courts typically do not uphold this view
in cases regarding closed-circuit television.
One means of surveillance incorporates the use of many small
cameras, stowed behind one-way glass surfaces to detect fraudulent
acts. These cameras are so well hidden that players are typically
unaware of their presence. Additionally, the periodic movement of
cameras prevents them from being easily identified, thus keeping
cheaters on their toes. At this point in time, the cameras have become so
high-tech that they are able to see more than just faces; they can actually
see player’s cards (Casino Surveillance).
Going Digital
Digital surveillance cameras and digital video recorder (DVR)
systems are now replacing VHS technology. They are making storage,
retrieval, and analysis of footage a much simpler process. Because data
capture is switching to digital formats, clarity when zooming is making
operators jobs much simpler. Along with this, surveillance monitors no
longer have to sit in front of a multitude of screens. They can now look
at multiple views in one touch screen or mouse-driven monitor. One
specific example of this digital surveillance technology is being used at
Viejas Casino in San Diego, CA. Viejas is using Sanyo DSR-M800
camera system. Viejas Casino chose this system because it was user-
friendly, sustainable on a generator and technically accessible. The
system records at the rate of 30 frames per second, and it has the ability
to zoom in to incredibly close ranges, zoom out to show fuller
presentations, and also monitor full-screen or quad pictures. One of the most significant aspects of the system is that it has the ability to obtain
images so quickly. The Sanyo DSR-M800 saves Viejas 70-80 percent of
search time per case. The system allows for continuous storage of seven
to 35 days in high-quality mode (Brebric 2005). Viejas leverages this
technology for a wide variety of purposes, including monitoring
parking lots and driveways and using this technology to determine
customer disputes, such as questions of who sat down at a slot machine
first. Digital surveillance cameras are able to provide a clear look into
exactly what was going on at casinos, but this technology still leaves out
the answer to the “who” question. Exactly what type of person is
present at each casino? Exactly who are the patrons?
Radio Frequency Identification Technology
Radio Frequency Identification technology is quickly making
its mark on the business world. RFID technology has already been used
to identify, locate and research the behavior of consumers in various
industries all over the world. “An RFID tag is a small chip with a built-
in antenna that can be attached to just about anything. It doesn’t need a
power source – when a radio signal from an RFID reader hits it, the tag
sends back a reply that includes the chip’s ID information” (Dobrota,
2006). Not only have RFID tags proven useful on consumer durables,
like in the case of Wal-Mart, but companies are also using them to keep
track of important files and prototypes. Even the U.S. Government is
using RFID technology in newly issued passports to help locate
criminals with outstanding warrants and to identify counterfeits. It is
obvious that companies are finding many uses for it, but can RFID
technology benefit consumers as well? It turns out that everyday people
are making use of RFID technology by putting tracers on their vehicles,
car keys, and even their pets. Since there has been so much competition
in this new industry, the cost of RFID tags has been driven down to
almost nothing. Anyone can now buy as many RFID tags as they want
for as little as ten cents a tag (Dobrota p. 2). If you were a company
looking to further your research on the use and disposal of your
products, why wouldn’t you use them?
Despite all of the benefits RFID tags seem to promote there is
one issue that consumers still may want to worry about; invasion of
privacy. Many people are worried that the products they buy will soon
turn into active tracing devices, and these devices will keep an eye on
their every move. Are these RFID tags invading our privacy or
providing useful benefits to us as consumers?
RFID Chips – Tracking Every Bet
The gaming industry is currently one of the biggest users of
RFID. While supermarkets and retailers are vigorously testing the
waters with RFID tags, casinos have already put the technology into full
use. Currently, new casinos such as the Wynn Hotel and Casino in Las
Vegas are taking preventative measures to stop cheaters by installing
RFID tags on every chip in circulation. These tags will stop cheating by
tracking, tracing and storing every bet that each gambler makes.
According to gambling-industry representatives, RFID tags enhance security by alerting gaming officials when the value of the chips does
not correspond to the monetary amount the gambler has in play
(McCutcheon, 2005). Tim Richards, the vice-president of Progressive
Gambling, says that RFID chips can “determine if players are
potentially cheating, if they are paid when they shouldn’t be paid [and]
what strategy they use, if any” (Dobrota, p. 2). The RFID chips are able
to identify when the chips are in a player’s hand and when they are on
the table, signaling to the casino the bet amount and the possible
payout. This capability allows the casino to prevent fraudulent claims
from players demanding false payouts and recognize the betting
patterns of cheaters that are counting cards or making forged bets.
RFID – Use and Abuse
What else are the casinos using this technology for? Marketing.
Casinos are recording the information that the RFID chips are collecting
and storing it in large databases. With RFID information in their
databases, casinos can make profiles of gamblers based on their
preferences, betting habits and gambling performance. There are many
uses for this type of profiling. For example, a losing player in the casino
might be offered a steak dinner to help reconcile his losses and
encourage him to play again tomorrow. On the other hand, a winning
player would be sent a couple of stiff drinks in hopes to alter his
winning pattern. When casinos recognize what type of gambler a
person is, they can influence the person to keep betting with
promotional offers like attractive spectators, free drinks, meals and
rooms. Casinos can also profit by identifying gambling addicts and
enticing them to gamble more with free gambling accounts. With these
examples in mind, it’s easy to see how some of the uses of this
technology could bring up moral and ethical concerns. One concern
people have is over the range in which the RFID chips can be traced.
People want to know if the chips they have are being traced out of the
casino and into their hotel rooms. While many worry about issues like
this, casino managers urge people to trust that the technology is being
used for benevolent purposes (Blades, par. 1). Nevertheless, people
remain skeptical about the use RFID technology in relation to privacy.
It’s obvious that RFID tags can do wonders for business efficiency, but
the effect of the technology on privacy might overcome its benefits to
businesses.
Biometrics and Face Scanning
Biometric face scanning is a new technology that is used in
casinos as a surveillance mechanism that can link a face with a name –
and a personal record. Biometrics is the study of a person’s
physiological features and behavioral characteristics. Face scanning is
the technology in which people can be identified based on their facial
features. This technology works by analyzing a person’s face based on
distinguishing features, which include specific proportions and angles
that are unique to a person’s face that cannot be hidden by beards,
makeup, glasses or hats. This technology recognizes a person by using
special security cameras to scan people’s faces and create three-
dimensional images out of multiple two-dimensional scans. The end
result is then stored in a database and scanned across the casino records
for VIPs, problem gamblers and criminals. If no record is found, the
system creates a new account for that person. One of the huge benefits
this technology gives casinos is the ability to identify people without
having to stop them as they walk through the doors. Dr. Thomas Zielke,
vice president of Cross Match Technologies notes, “There is always the
question of how to monitor visitors in public areas without significantly
limiting access. Identifying the target individuals without denying entry
to the unknown public is the key to success, and facial recognition is
one of the best ways that this can be achieved” (German Casinos, par.
5). The objective of the technology is to monitor people without
disrupting them, but isn’t it important for the visitors to know what
they are walking into?
Face Recognition Teams Up With RFID
The use of Face Recognition Systems ties in closely with the
use of RFID chips. While the Facial Recognition System creates a profile
of an individual, the RFID chips store important data about the
individual. Some of this information includes the games that are being
played, the amount of money the person is willing to bet and the
strategy the individual has been using. All of these statistics are
recorded and put into a database that is accessed the next time the
individual’s face is recognized. This all leads to more moneymaking
opportunities for the casinos. Biometrica Systems, one of the leading
providers of face recognition technology to the gaming industry, states
that biometrics “[enhances] a casino’s operational intelligence, which
can be used to reduce unnecessary losses and drive a more profitable
business operation” (Biometrica, par. 1). Casinos have already
eliminated losses they used to incur by proactively removing problem
gamblers who are identified by the cameras on the casino floor. As a
known cheater is identified, a red flag instantly goes off in the
surveillance room, signaling that the person is banned from the casino.
The casino floor security is notified and the person is immediately
removed from the property. With this current level of technology, it is
rare that any gambler known to have a prior record of cheating can get
any farther than the casino doorway.
Casino Patron Vulnerability
As technology continues to further enhance casino
surveillance, are people getting more and more victimized? Much of the
use of Face Recognition Systems is for identifying people in public
places who are criminals or terrorists. This strategy is good in theory,
but if the system is wrong, it can lead to huge problems. It has already
been recognized that face recognition is not 100% accurate. USA Today
reported that when tested in an airport in Boston, facial recognition
Systems produced a 39% rate of failure (Allan par. 2). Why is this
important? Face Recognition Systems in casinos are set up to identify
criminals, terrorists and problem gamblers. If face recognition systems
are wrong, a person could be identified as a criminal even if he just has a couple facial features in common with the person in the computer’s
database. Many people are worried that they will be profiled as
terrorists just because they have some similar features. If one person
simply looks like another, is it fair to kick him out of the casino or keep
a close eye on him just because the computer said so?
In addition, privacy issues might also come into play over the
confidentiality of face scanning database records. Since no one has
signed any agreement, will casinos share people’s gambling records
with other institutions? Back in “the good old days” of Las Vegas, many
people liked to joke that they could become someone else just for the
weekend – unfortunately, that option is no longer available.
Databases
As previously mentioned, biometric face scanning has caused
enormous advances in casino security. Through the use of this new
technology combined with extensive databases, casinos are able to
distinguish exactly who is entering the casinos. Since the events of
September 11, the casino industry has made significant contributions to
the advancement of security measures. Through the use of databases,
the Las Vegas Security Chiefs Association has combined forces with the
federal, state and local governments by offering their facilities to be
used as testing grounds for applications of security technologies. Police
and Las Vegas Security officials are integrating the systems to include
FBI and DHS watch lists to be searchable in coordination with biometric
facial recognition technology. This means that cameras could be
scanning a room, recognize a person, scan it through an extremely
comprehensive database and locate a wanted criminal. In an interview
with Shawn Jacobs (name has been changed per request), a
representative from the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police, Jacobs said
“Biometric facial recognition technology holds the future as far as
casinos being able to help out in catching criminals. There is a lot of
potential in the idea that casinos are able to use security methods that
other places, say for instance, streets, cannot. This is still in the works,
but I hope it will be up and running soon.” The system holds
insurmountable benefits to the casino security team, as well as to the
police force. The Stratosphere became the first casino in Las Vegas to
use facial recognition technology back in 1999. The system installed was
created by Viisage, which is now part of L-1 Identity Solutions.
Managers of the Stratosphere used a preloaded database of recognized
offenders, along with the addition of their own known crooks, to
identify potential threats to the business (Blades 2007). Corporate vice
president of surveillance and compliance officer for American Casino &
Entertainment, Derk Boss, explained the positive and negatives of the
system in an interview:
-
The system was a great help in the beginning. It helped us
recognize people who were just flying in from Atlantic City to
Las Vegas and playing our games, and we were trying to
figure out who they were because they were using false names
and such. But history has conspired to make the system less
necessary today. It comes down to a couple of things. For one,
we don't deal with those kinds of people as much anymore. There are certainly still card counters and advantage players,
but they're not as bad as they used to be, for whatever reason.
And 9/11 has really changed this as well, because we tend to
know our players a bit more. They check into the hotel and an
ID is being asked for. When you go to get a players' card, IDs
are asked for. So we find out who they are faster through other
means.
These “other means” are part of a highly intuitive idea first
started by Harrah’s. Anyone who has visited a casino recently has
noticed that the picture of the triumphant old woman with her bucket
of coins she won, no longer exists. Many casinos have moved in the
direction of ticket-in/ticket-out (TITO) technology. TITO technology
combats the problem of coin theft through schemes with the intent to
distract the coin carrier and rob them (Blades 2007). Additionally, it
reduces labor and maintenance costs. This is all part of the modern
casino, a computerized facility system that relies on layers of technology
to keep the gamblers playing and especially, the high rollers rolling.
Staying Loyal
The modern casino is made up of a network of high-tech slots,
video surveillance technology, and data mining applications put
together to underline customer loyalty to individual casinos through
loyalty cards. Imagine a customer pulling into Harrah’s Las Vegas.
-
A smiling valet greets her by name. Instead of having to wade
through a crowded lobby to reach the casino, she steps quickly
into the gaming room and sits down at a slot machine. The
card reader on the machine pages her host, who approaches
every so often to ensure that she's happy with the service she's
receiving. Although the customer doesn't fit the stereotypical
profile of a Las Vegas high roller, Harrah's makes sure she
feels special. Because the casino delivers the recognition and
service she has come to expect, she'll return to Harrah's again
and again (Loveman 2003).
These loyalty cards provide a number of valuable statistics to
casinos. Harrah’s Casino created their Total Rewards program about ten
years ago to encourage guests to continue staying with them, making
them the first to undertake this type of project. Guests at the hotels and
casinos register for a loyalty card by sharing the information on their
driver’s license, such as their name, address, and date of birth. Anytime
they visit one of the 39 locations, they can use their cards to earn credits
toward food and merchandise. Similar to other loyalty programs, tier
credits can be earned to give members higher status in the program.
Each time a customer visits and uses their card, their preferences are
recorded, everything down to the types of games they play, the
amenities they prefer in the hotels, etc. Harrah’s stores customer data
from the casino floors in its so-called Winners Information Network, an
IBM Informix database running on an IBM AIX-based system. Not
every employee has access to this information due to the guidelines set
by Harrah’s. For example, if a manager at one location wanted information on their own property, they could access this information
freely. However, if that same manager wanted a marketing list for the
entire customer base, they would have to go through the central
relationship-marketing group. Harrah’s and its business partners can
access some of the information gathered from the joint online
promotions, but these promotions are always positioned as opt in. The
way Harrah’s eases uncertainties of customers is by explaining that by
tracking your play at their properties, they can help you enjoy the
experience better with richer rewards and improved service (Norton
2005). The customers understand exactly what information is being
stored, the rewards they are earning, and what Harrah’s will do with
the information. Today 80% of the 200,000 to 250,000 customers who
visit Harrah’s properties are members of the loyalty program. Since
launching its rewards program Harrah’s has increased its share of the
market from 36% to 50% (Hoffman 2007).
While programs such as these can provide immense benefits to
the customers and casinos, it is important to understand that with the
advancements in technology to acquire large amounts of data about
customers, the possibility of data theft or misuse can occur. Pechanga
Resort and Casino in the city of Temecula, the largest casino in
California, has the same technological advancements of casinos such as
Harrah’s and is aware of these dangers. Gilbert Mendoza, network
security administrator for Pechanga, explains that “In this age,
information is gold, and we are very serious about maintaining the
security and integrity of our sensitive data. We are bound by certain
internal control standards that are set by our gaming commission, and
the primary directive of IT is to ensure the security of our data” (2006).
With nearly 5,000 employees scattered across the resort’s property, the
possibility for a data breach through users’ USB devices and other
peripherals is always possible. Vulnerable endpoints are a growing
concern in the casino database industry, especially as flash drives and
CDs become cheaper and more capable of storing large amounts of
data. A program called Safend Protector is currently being used at
Pechanga to combat this problem. The product has the ability to track
and enforce the types of devices that are allowed to connect to the
system, record serial numbers of these devices, and administer file
access logging and cryptology (Chickowski 2006). Programs such as
Safend must be employed at all casinos to ensure customer data is
protected and does not end up in the wrong hands.
Security in Casinos Survey
Since the threat of invasion of privacy is already present in
casinos, we conducted a survey to discover the amount of information
the average person knew about casinos and their new developments in
security. The study produced 40 responses over a wide variety of
demographics in order to give accurate results for the experiment. 60%
of the respondents were female, and the respondents’ ages ranged from
21 to 75. The survey asked each of the respondents a variety of
questions, including their reasons for going to the casino. The results of
the survey showed that there were almost as many people who went to
party as there were people who went to gamble. Whether it be partying
or gambling, were the people aware of the information leech they were
Since the threat of invasion of privacy is already present in
casinos, we conducted a survey to discover the amount of information
the average person knew about casinos and their new developments in
security. The study produced 40 responses over a wide variety of
demographics in order to give accurate results for the experiment. 60%
of the respondents were female, and the respondents’ ages ranged from
21 to 75. The survey asked each of the respondents a variety of
questions, including their reasons for going to the casino. The results of
the survey showed that there were almost as many people who went to
party as there were people who went to gamble. Whether it be partying
or gambling, were the people aware of the information leech they were walking into? The results of the survey showed that of all the people
who had been to casinos, 60% believed that there wasn’t too much
security at the casinos they visited. With that, only 25% felt that they
experienced some invasion of privacy at the casino and of those people,
only 60% had ever heard of RFID technology. This bit of data shows
that the public is not well informed on what types of activity is going on
behind the scenes of casinos and other businesses. This may be due to
the enormous amount of secrecy casinos are surrounded by. How can
people make good judgments about privacy in casinos if they are not
aware of what is going on in them?
With many privacy issues arising from the increase in casino
surveillance, it is important that the public is aware of the threats
surrounding them. Out of the 40 respondents, 20% left their visit to the
casino with a winning gambling record. Little do these winners know
that their next visit to the casino could mean that more odds are against
them than before. As casinos gain information about individuals, they
will also acquire the means to defusing their strategies and find ways to
bring more probabilities in their favor. Another scary statistic brought
on by this survey was that nearly 90% of all the respondents were on
social networks like MySpace and Facebook. In this day and age, it is
widely known that many institutions such as employers are tapping
into these social networks and finding information previously thought
to be secret. Casinos are no different: they have the ability to go into
social networking sites just like other companies to acquire data that
they use to make profiles for gamblers. Along with that, casinos can
upload people’s pictures with facial recognition systems and create
visual profiles of a person even before they step foot in a casino for the
first time. Sooner or later, a casino’s database could grow to be as large
a government census.
On a surprising note, 40% of the respondents revealed that
they had been victims of credit card fraud. How does that tie into all
this? Recently, at the Atlantis Hotel and Casino located in the Bahamas,
50,000 guest records were stolen that contained personal information,
including detailed credit card and identification information (OCN par.
1). Although the Atlantis Hotel and Casino is not located in any major
gaming area like Las Vegas or Atlantic City, it is important to note that
if hackers can break this database, they can infiltrate others. While many
people still feel immune to the effects of casino security, across the
world casinos are revamping surveillance systems gaining more
information on more people every single day.
Conclusion
Over the years society has increased its level of technology in
order to make life easier for people all over the world. Like many
institutions, casinos have adopted new technologies to help their
business run more effectively and efficiently. From security cameras to
RFID chips, the gaming industry has taken extra precautions to foil
cheaters and eliminate unnecessary losses. Somewhere between all of
the technological advances, patrons of casinos lost their ability to be
inconspicuous. Technological advancements in casinos have given
surveillance systems the ability to identify each person who walks into a
casino. Information is continuously collected on people and held for an unknown amount of time, only to be used in the casinos’ favor at any
time that they see fit. Unfortunately, the majority of the public is
unaware of the consequences they incur upon stepping foot in a gaming
establishment. While casino executives continue to increase profits,
patrons are losing more and more privacy each day. It is important that
the public becomes more aware of this issue, because if this trend
persists, the exposure that people have by walking into a casino might
mean an all access pass for all casino personnel. Currently, there is no
legislation targeted at casinos concerning privacy rights, but as the
public becomes more aware of the dangers of patronage, privacy
debates will surely commence. Until then, casinos will stay in hot
pursuit over technologies that will help them prevent fraud while in the
meantime people’s privacy rights will remain in question.
Works Cited
"50,000 Guest Records Stolen From Atlantis Hotel-Casino, Bahamas." Online CasinoNews. 20 Oct. 2007
.
Allan, Ant. "Face-Scanning Failures Need to Be Publicized to Help
Security." Gartner. 20 Oct. 2007
.
Blades, Marleah. "Ten Years and a World of
Difference.(Feature). ." Security Technology &
Design. 17.3 (March 2007): 62.
Brebric, Dario. "Viejas Casino." Security Technology &
Design. 15.8 (August 2005): 44(1).
"Casino Surveillance." 2006. 20 Oct. 2007
.
Chickowski, Ericka. "House advantage: California's largest casino
makes endpoint security a priority, reports Ericka
Chickowski. " SC Magazine. (August 2006): 47(2). General
OneFile. Gale.
Dobrota, Alex. "RFID: Creating an 'Internet of Things" Globeandmail.Com (2007).
"Enhancing Casino Intelligence." Biometrica Systems. 20 Oct. 2007
http://www.biometrica.com/.
"German Casinos Secure with Cross Match Technologies Facial
Recognition Solution." Business Wire (2007).
Hoffman, Thomas. "Harrah"s Bets on Loyalty Program in Caesars Deal."
Computerworld 27 June 2005: 10.
Jacobs, Shawn. Telephone interview. 29 Oct. 2007.
Loveman, Gary. "Diamonds in the Data Mine." Harvard Business
Review May 2003.
McCutcheon, Chuck. "Tiny Tags in Chips to Track Gamblers." The
Seattle Times 18 May 2005.
Norton, David. "The Dark Side of Customer Analytics." Harvard
Business Review May 2007: 37-48.
Schuman, Evan. "Scanner Grabs Identity Data From Driver's License."
Eweek.Com (2007).